This is going to be a longer post than usual because it was written as a research paper. It is my attempt to compile from disparate sources the development of the book, transition to the codex, and different codex styles used in Egypt pre-1600 AD, and convey the information in such a manner that it would be of interest to casual readers as well as possibly scholars.

Introduction

The storage and transfer of knowledge has taken many forms throughout human history. From clay tablets and painting on rocks in the early days of human history, to the more-portable scroll, to the modernly-ubiquitous codex, and even purely digital forms of communication, the evolution from one form to another occurs in different ways in different regions and time periods. The intent of this paper is to explore the evolution of the book in Egypt (and the larger Arabic world) pre-1600. This will be accomplished by compiling knowledge of the known binding types and discussing the potential influences each type had on the subsequent one. Throughout this paper, the term "book" will be used in the broadest definition: "something that yields knowledge or understanding" (Merriam-Webster dictionary), which includes all forms of literature, scientific, and religious works, but for this paper does not include strictly administrative documents.

Although scrolls had largely been supplanted by the codex before the start of the Medieval Age, they hadn't entirely fallen out of use and will be discussed in this paper at least briefly. Greater attention will be paid to two forms of codex bookbinding in wide use in Egypt pre-1600, Coptic and Islamic. For each style of bookbinding, the materials and structure will be discussed in detail, along with a summary of their contents and uses in period. The process and tools for binding the books will also be included when such information is available or can be reasonably postulated.

Language and writing

As a study of the history of books is really a study of the history of the record and transmission of knowledge, this paper would be incomplete without at least a brief overview of the history of writing in this region of the world. The oldest known written language is Sumerian, a symbol-based, or logographic, system developed in Mesopotamia around 3400-3100 BC where each symbol represented a word. Egyptian hieroglyphic script originated sometime prior to 3100 BC [1]. The geographic proximity of these two civilizations and the apparent order in which the writing systems developed suggests that the development of Egyptian hieroglyphics may have at least been influenced by Sumerian, although the differences in the form and grammatical structure leads scholars to believe that this influence was limited to the transmission of an idea, and that hieroglyphics developed independently. In ancient Egyptian mythology, Seshat and Thoth were the goddess and god associated with wisdom, writing, and scribes who invented and brought writing to men. This assignment of credit to deities was common when the true history was unclear or not recorded and could be suggestive of a technological development imported from elsewhere (such as Sumer).

Early extant uses of writing included clay tablets (most commonly in Sumeria); pottery and stone vessels or shards; labels, seals, and other small usually clay pieces; and carved or painted walls, particularly of tombs. A common feature of these materials is that they are durable and not prone to significant degradation over time compared to softer animal and vegetative based materials. The earliest archeological evidence points to writing being used for administrative and economic purposes, neither of which requires a "book-like" structure to contain large amounts of information (a book) together in one place. Figure 1 shows two examples of clay tablets, the earlier one (left) an account of drink distribution (an administrative record); the later one (right) documents a ritual and could be considered part of a "book".

Figure 1 Clay tablets from Babylon: drink distribution c. 1900-1600 BC (left) & ritual c. 636-529 BC (right), Chester Beatty Library

Hieroglyphic remained the formal writing system of Egypt for inscription of monuments at least until the Roman period, with the last known inscription occurring at approximately the end of the 4th century AD [2]. Cursive hieroglyphic, commonly called hieratic although that term was coined by the Greeks in the 5th century BC to differentiate the 'priestly' writing style from the 'popular' everyday script of the common people, developed very soon after the invention of hieroglyphic. Cursive hieroglyphs lend themselves well to writing on softer materials such as leather and papyrus, leading scholars to speculate that cursive hieroglyphs may have developed because those materials were already in use for writing at that time, although no direct evidence of this has survived [2]. Demotic, the 'popular' script previously mentioned, was invented during the 26th Dynasty (664-525 BC) and was used at first for primarily administrative, economic, and other "everyday" uses. Later uses of demotic include literary and religious texts as well. By the 2nd-3rd century AD, Coptic had supplanted Demotic and is considered the last iteration of the ancient Egyptian language. Using a grammatical structure similar to Demotic, Coptic uses the Greek alphabet supplemented by a few characters retained from Demotic.  Following the Muslim conquest of Egypt, Arabic replaced Coptic for most uses; the Coptic church continued to use Coptic for religious writings (until the end of the 12 century) and liturgical purposes (still used today) [3, 4].

Scrolls

Of all the bookbinding styles in all the world throughout history, scrolls have been the most widespread and enduring. Originating separately in at least Asia and Africa, the invention and early development of the scroll in each region is sadly lost to the sands of time. Although the focus of this paper is on Egypt, it is interesting to consider potential influences between cultures, just as with Sumeria and writing. Lacking written historical records documenting the development of the scroll, other sources must be considered. Oral history, in the form of myths and legends, from both cultures address the history of writing, but not the history of the materials or forms used for writing. Fortunately, archeological data is available to help fill in the gaps. 

The earliest extant pieces of papyrus with writing on them are from the 5th Dynasty, c. 2400 BC. Found in the funerary complex of late 5th Dynasty pharaohs, these fragments (called the Abusir papyri) contain administrative information and were largely found in storage rooms [5]. Possibly originally fastened with leather straps and stored in wooden boxes (subsequently stolen by looters), these fragments show that papyrus already had significant usage (at least for administrative purposes) by this time period. Supporting this conclusion, a blank papyrus scroll was found in a 1st Dynasty (c. 2925-2775 BC) tomb [6, 7]. The high quality of the material suggests that the making of papyrus rolls was already a well-practiced art by then.

Taking a quick detour across the breadth of Asia to China, the history of the scroll is even less well defined and must be extrapolated from related technological developments such as writing, silk cloth, bamboo strips, and paper. Writing was developed at least as early as 2500-2000 BC and scrolls of silk or bamboo strips were in use at least as early as late 6th or early 5th century BC [7, 8]. Based on these dates, it is theoretically possible that the Egyptian scroll could have been an influence on the development of the Chinese scroll. It is unlikely the reverse could have been true, although silk cloth was in use in China as early as 3630 BC so it's possible that rolled silk cloth could have provided some inspiration to the Egyptians, but that's even more of a stretch [8, 9].

Returning to the focus of this paper, the development of the book in Egypt, and having explored the history of the development of the scroll as thoroughly as the evidence allows, the next aspect to consider is the form and material of the scroll. Since an understanding of the material is helpful when considering the form, it will be discussed first. Papyrus is a sedge plant native to Egypt that grows in the soggy ground and stagnant water in the marshes at the edge of the Nile River. The exact method used by the ancient Egyptians to turn this triangular-stalked plant into a flat writing surface was not recorded (or such records did not survive). A description of the process by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia (Natural History, published 77 AD) is noted by scholars to be problematic and was likely based on either hearsay, some method of "post-processing" used by the Romans after the papyrus scrolls arrived from Egypt, or possible both. Attempts by modern scholars to recreate the process and produce scrolls of similar quality to the extant examples have met with enough success to identify the issues with Pliny the Elder's description, but haven't fully replicated the quality the Egyptians achieved. The papyrus must be formed into sheets when it is freshly cut because the gluey sap is what adhered the strips together as they were pressed or beaten. This limited production of papyrus sheets to Egypt, which will be an important factor in the development of later bookbinding styles. The harvested papyrus stalk would be cut into sections of manageable length (determining the maximum height of the roll that could be produced, commonly 25-35 cm [7]) with the lower sections producing higher quality (finer, thinner, whiter) papyrus sheets than the middle and upper sections because of the increased pulp:fiber ratio. The outer pith would be removed and the inner stalk sliced or peeled into thin slices, a task requiring a great deal of skill to achieve the desired consistency. These slices would be laid parallel to each other (possibly overlapping slightly) with a second layer laid perpendicular to the first. These strips would be pressed or beaten to combine them together and then dried. Once dry, the sheets would be glued to each other to form a roll, usually consisting of 20 sheets [7, 10]. Sheets were pasted right over left to avoid catching the scribe's pen when writing [8]. The text written on the scroll was commonly in columns of equal width and height or in a linear fashion similar to extant wall paintings [7]. Figure 2 is one of many papyrus scrolls found by archaeologists in tombs in Egypt; degradation of the outer part of the roll (on the right side of the image) is typical of recovered scrolls.

Figure 2 Papyrus scroll, Egypt c. 990-970 BC, Met Museum

Papyrus was apparently always made into a roll with pieces cut off if needed, rather than making sheets to the desired size. One possible reason for this (and an advantage of the scroll form for papyrus) is that the edges of the papyrus are known to be somewhat fragile so a high length:width ratio is desirable [8]. Another possible reason is that the sheets have a natural tendency to curve with the vertical strips on the outside of the curve. This tendency is one reason papyrus rolls were always rolled with the vertical strips on the outside. Writing on the semi-continuous strips is also easier for the scribes, although it is unclear if the writing style adapted to the papyrus or vice versa [8].  Papyrus scrolls were exported from Egypt to other Mediterranean societies at least as early as the 5th century BC. The Egyptians evidently adjusted their manufacturing methods to account for local preferences; the Greeks wrote the opposite direction so the direction of the overlap had to be changed and used a harder writing implement, requiring the use of thicker/sturdier sheets [8]. The oldest Greek book-scrolls are dated to the middle or second half of the fourth century BC, unfortunately both in fragments; one of which was found in a tomb in northern Greece and one in Egypt [7].

The contents of scrolls covered the gamut: official and commercial documents, literary works, religious writings, etc. through the mid-tenth century [8]. From at least the 18th dynasty (1550BC-1292BC) onward, papyrus was a common choice for "The Book of Going Forth by Day" (more commonly known as "the Book of the Dead"), a collection of funerary spells that accompanied mummies [11].  The transition from the scroll form to the more commonly known codex form will be discussed next.

Transition to the Codex

Research into the transition from the scroll to the codex has largely involved textual and linguistic analysis of contemporary writings and accounts from the period when the transition is believed to occur. Available evidence indicates that the codex form developed first outside of Egypt (most likely in the Greek or Roman empires) and initially used parchment more so than papyrus [12]. Outside of the preservative arid climate of Egypt, it is not surprising that any early codices have long since degraded, taking evidence of this transition with them. Other evidence is required, and indeed is available in the form of metal "proto-codices" and wax tablets.

Here the potential influence of Sumer on the development of the book in Egypt must be revisited. Although there is no known study by scholars exploring a potential link, a clear path can be traced from the clay tablets (and slightly later wax tablets) in use in Sumer to the wax tablets (and later metal "proto-codices") used by the Greeks and Romans, which seem to have influenced the development of the codex. Late in the fourth millennium BC, clay tablets began to be used for accounting purposes and later other administrative tasks. By 2400 BC, cuneiform writing was a fully-formed language although it was used primarily for utilitarian documents that don't really count as "books". A cache of tablets found from a school in the 1740s BC indicate that by that time, tablets were being used to record literary works (at least as memorization aids) and could rightly be called "books" [7]. By the first millennium BC, textual evidence indicates that wax tablets were also in use in Sumer for recording more ephemeral information, although none have been found from this time period. It is estimated that the Greeks were also using wax tablets by the mid-8th century BC; it is unclear where the use of wax tablets first developed and where it was transmitted to. These wax tablets were pieces of wood with a slight hollow filled with wax. Commonly, they were attached in a diptych form (two pieces hinged together to close the wax on the inside) with a slight raise of the wood in the middle to protect the wax when closed [7]. More than two tablets could also be attached together, as shown in Figure 3, suggesting a codex form and possibly providing the inspiration to use papyrus in a similar manner [13]. A fresco from Pompeii (1st century AD) shows a man reading a scroll and a woman with a wax tablet for keeping household records, indicating the separate role each format had in the Grecian household [7].

Figure 3 Wood & wax writing tablet "codex", Coptic Egypt, c. 500-700 AD, Met Museum

The other "codex-like" surviving historical artifacts are the Golden Orphism Book (c. 600-500 BC) which is 6 sheets of gold with writing, bound together with wire on on edge, and the Pyrgi metal tablets (c. 500 BC) which is a set of three tablets in Etruscan and Phoenician with holes around the edges suggesting they were bound together in some manner. Both of these "proto-codices", shown in Figure 4, have ties to Etruria, Italy, and may have also influenced the development of the codex form.

Figure 4 Metal tablet "proto-codices": Golden Orphism book (left), Pyrgi tablets (right)

Regardless of how the codex originally developed, its spread across the Mediterranean civilizations and eventual domination over the scroll is tied to the spread of a new religion in the region: Christianity. Practical reasons have been suggested that the increased portability, durability, and compactness of the codex form was advantageous given the persecution the Christians faced at the time. It is also easier to reference a particular passage more readily (although there were methods for marking particular passages of scrolls as well) without having to unroll a potentially significant portion of a scroll. Other possible reasons have been proposed by scholars, but as yet no consensus has been reached. Speculations as to why the early Christians adopted the codex form over the roll form aside, there are clear ties in the available evidence that the rise of the codex (not only for religious purposes) is closely linked with the rise of Christianity in this era and region of the world. It is also clear that the codex developed outside of Egypt and was brought in as part of the increasing Hellenization (later Romanization) and the rise of Christianity. The shift from scroll to codex in non-Christian writings was slower, and by the fourth century, the codex had replaced the scroll for literary and scientific books. 

Structure of the Codex

The following sections include a fair amount of technical jargon, which cannot easily be avoided. It is useful at this point to define the terms that will be used, and offer insight into the structure of the codex in general. As the Islamic style is the more complex of the two styles that will be discussed, it will be used to show the structure. The primary external difference in structure between the Islamic style and the Coptic style is the existence of the envelope and fore-edge flaps, which will be discussed in the Islamic section. Figure 5 shows the structure and relevant terminology.

Figure 5 The outer structure of an Islamic-style book

The inner binding structure of each style varies, as will be discussed. Both use unsupported link-stitch on at least two stations, or sewing locations, an example of which is shown in Figure 6. A quire, or a gathering, is a collection of pages folded together that forms the basis for most types of sewn binding.

Figure 6 Unsupported link-stitch on two stations

Unsupported link-stitch on more than two stations uses kettle stitch (depicted in Figure 6 above) on the outer stations and a "chain" stitch (so called for its similarity to the chain stitch used by embroiderers) on the inner station(s). The method of sewing each is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Method of sewing an unsupported link-stitch

Both styles of binding used an endband, though of differing styles. The Islamic style of endband is shown in Figure 8, along with the spine-lining and the doublure (also the paste-down or the endsheet). Endbands provide additional structure and stability to the textblock.

Figure 8 Internal structure of Islamic-style binding

The early Coptic codices, as will be discussed, used a leather back strip instead of cloth spine lining. It is not clearly shown in the figure, but the spine lining (or back strip) runs the entire length of the spine and generally exceeds the width of the spine by at least an inch on either side. The general purpose, to stabilize the book and provide attachment to the boards, is the same regardless of the material used.

Coptic

Given the intimate tie between Christianity and the codex, it is no surprise that one of the earliest codex bookbinding styles is named for the church that primarily used it. The Coptic church is believed to have been founded circa 42 AD and was embraced by native Egyptians more so than other ethnicities living in Egypt. Therefore the bookbinding style that they used can be considered to be Egyptian. The earliest surviving extants with the binding structure somewhat intact date to the 3rd or 4th century AD although leaves from codices have been found from as early as the 2nd century. The Nag Hammadi codices, shown in Figure 9, are the earliest relatively-intact examples of this binding style (offering the earliest look into the binding style used) and were mostly of the single-quire type, fortunately still in the original leather binding. The binding was a simple attachment through the fold into a spine strip which was then pasted to the cover. The pages were all made of parchment [14]. As the single-quire type of binding does not seem to be particularly common, no further discussion of it will be included. 

Figure 9 Nag Hammadi codices

Multi-quire codices, or books with multiple gatherings of pages, are more common and were also in use as early as the second century. Although the extant examples are degraded, several common characteristics have been identified: the quires are joined via sewing through the centerfold, an unsupported link-stitch was used, and attachment to the boards was using the leather back strip and additional leather hinging straps. In the early part of the period (through approximately the seventh century), the cover boards were predominantly wood, generally plain and uncovered. Different woods were used; boxwood has been identified for two extant examples and one is thought to be acacia, species either native to Egypt or known to be cultivated there since ancient times. The boards were commonly 4-9 mm thick with wide holes drilled obliquely through the spine to accommodate the leather hinging straps [14]. A modern example of this style of board is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Boards prepared for Coptic binding with holes drilled obliquely through the spine

The boards themselves were tooled although not with the degree of skill typical of later bindings. The textblock would be flush with the boards and there is some indication of edge trimming to produce the kind of smooth surface necessary for decoration. Traces of colored endbands remain in at least two of the extant examples. Remnants of the sewing thread provide indications of the sewing structure although the stitching is damaged and some guesswork is required to reconstruct how the sewing might have been accomplished. Papyrus was a more common material for codex pages than parchment before the seventh century, at least in Egypt [14]. The contents of the surviving books are mostly religious in nature with some non-religious texts, all of which would have been written before being bound [12]. At least one example survives of a blank papyrus codex that was later written [8]. Figure 11 shows a modern recreation of the Glazier Codex, a 5th century parchment codex of the Coptic style. Note that the leather hinging straps and back strip were intentionally not glued to the spine in this reconstruction to allow the details of the binding structure to remain visible. 

Figure 11 Modern facsimile of the Codex Glazier, parchment with wood & leather covers, 5th c Coptic.

From all the evidence available, the method of binding can be deduced. The pages would be folded into quires or gatherings and sewn with vegetative-based thread using unsupported link stitch on 3-5 stations with different spacings between stations observed. The textblock was attached to the boards by means of leather hinging straps which were glued to the spine. The ends of these straps were passed through slits in the leather back strip which was subsequently also glued to the spine. The hinging straps were passed through the holes in the board and then pasted down to the inside along with the extensions (extra width) of the leather back strip. The first leaf (blank page) of the first quire and the last leaf of the last quire were used as pastedowns to line the covers. Keeping the book closed when not in use required the use of fastenings, most commonly leather wrapping bands attached to the boards, and sometimes using bone pegs, such as is shown in Figure 12 [13, 14].

Figure 12 Bone peg for bookbinding, 5th c. Egypt, Met Museum

The seventh century marked a period of transition in the Coptic bookbinding style, possibly related to the Muslim conquest of Egypt. The most evident change is the use of leather covers, most commonly goatskin of a red-brown variety. The relation between the use of leather covers and other crafts involving leatherworking, such as shoemaking, is an interesting perspective towards understanding the decorations and fastening methods used [13].  Another notable change is that the wooden cover boards were replaced by papyrus pressboard. Scholars have suggested that this change may have occurred as an attempt by papyrus makers to retain some share of the bookbinding market since scrolls had largely fallen out of use by this point. Another plausible explanation borne out by the evidence is that someone came up with the idea to reuse old papyrus records as a (theoretically cheaper) substitute for the wooden boards, and it caught on. The papyrus pressboards were thicker than the wooden boards (6-18 mm) and were made by pasting sheets of papyrus together and pressing them until they dried [14]. An example of this style of binding is shown in Figure 13; unfortunately, the covers shown are separated from the textblock.

Figure 13 Coptic binding: outside (left) and inside (right), 5th century, Pierpont Morgan library

 Other internal changes, less readily evident to the reader of the book, included the method of board attachment using hinging loops, the use of coarse cloth for spine lining instead of the leather back strips, and the more integral use of endbands. The new method of board attachment, probably developed because pressboard lacks the structural stability necessary to support the oblique holes used for earlier Coptic bindings. The boards were attached to the textblock using hinging loops made of the same material used to sew the textblock, and could be done concurrently with the textblock sewing or previous to it. Thus, glue was no longer the only thing holding the textblock to the cover. Attaching the boards in this manner and using pressboard allowed for different shapings of the board edges, including a grooved edge that was copied on later Byzantine bindings, indicating a relationship between the bookbinding styles used in different regions and by different branches of the Christian church. The majority of the extant texts were written on parchment, with some on papyrus and even a few on paper from the later period. [14]

Islamic

The Muslim conquest of Egypt did more than just mark a period of transition for the Coptic bookbinding style; it also brought with it an increased Arab presence and influence in the region. More importantly to this discussion, it brought the rapidly growing Muslim caliphate into direct contact with a culture with a strong tradition of bookbinding. Scholars have considered the influence of the Coptic bookbinding style on the development of the Islamic style, although with very little evidence of early Islamic books, it's difficult to determine how exactly this new style came about.

Before the structure of this style of bookbinding is discussed, the materials must be considered. Of most relevance is the use of paper for the pages. Taking a detour back to China where paper was first invented, legend holds that the invention of paper is attributed to Cai Lun, a eunuch during the Han Dynasty in the late 1st century AD. The truth is, as usual, not so simple. Archeological evidence indicates that paper existed long before this attributed date. Fragments of paper have been found dating to the early Han Dynasty (c. 200 BC) or before. The earliest indication of writing on paper is from the 1st century, before Cai Lun. From its origination in China, paper spread, first throughout the East and then westward to the Islamic lands along the silk routes. By the 8th century, paper had achieved a foothold in the Islamic lands and quickly came to dominate the writing industry; by the tenth century it had even been approved for use for Qu'rans [8]. Other religious communities in the region adopted the use of paper for non-religious purposes, continuing to use parchment for scriptures. The Coptic church was a primary holdout, continuing to use parchment or papyrus for most purposes. Paper was initially made in the eastern regions of the Islamic lands, near Samarqand and Talas but was eventually made in other places, including Egypt. Paper came to Egypt by way of Syria in the ninth century and was produced there by the tenth century. It was noted in an 11th century book that Egyptian paper was so fine that it was specified for use for writing to/from the Caliphs, at least until the Fatmids took control of Egypt in the mid-tenth century [8]. During the 11th century, Syrian paper was imported to Egypt, indicating the papermills were not producing sufficiently. A traveler noted the existence of papermills in Fustat (the first Muslim capital of Egypt) in the 1240s. It was noted that most Egyptian paper was neither heavily sized nor burnished so it soaked up more ink [7]. Paper was most commonly made from hemp or linen rags, or a combination of both [15]. A description of the process of making paper from flax is available in the 11th century book by ibn Badis [16]. Scholars have speculated why paper became more popular than papyrus and parchment; the reasons identified are largely economic. Paper can be made anywhere there is sufficient water and fiber (unlike papyrus that only grows well in Egypt) and doesn't require killing an animal (unlike parchment), making it cheaper to produce [8]. A depiction of the paper-making process from the mid-19th century is shown in Figure 14; although this source is much later, the process and tools shown align with the process described by ibn Badis.

Figure 14 Papermaker and his tools, Kashmir, c. 1850-1860 AD

The structure of the Islamic style of books has many similar elements to the later Coptic style: unsupported link-stitch (common to most if not all of the bookbinding styles in the region), coarse cloth spine lining, leather covers over pasteboard, and endbands. Notable differences are the number of stations, the type of thread used for sewing, the materials and thickness of the pasteboard, and the style of the endbands. Another very readily evident difference is the use of a pentagonal envelope flap which connected to the back cover and folded under the front cover when the book was closed. This pentagonal flap was used instead of the fastening methods more common to the Coptic style (and other similar styles) and although it is a characteristic feature of Islamic bookbindings, the origin of it is not much discussed by scholars, perhaps due to lack of evidence upon which to formulate a theory. Figure 15 shows the inside of a detached cover; the spine-lining and remnants of the endband can both be seen.

Figure 15 Inside of Islamic book cover, Egypt/Syria, 14th century, Met Museum

The process for binding a book in the Islamic style is fairly similar to the Coptic style, with elements drawn from both early and late Coptic styles. Two historic texts describing the process exist from different regions of the Arabic world a few centuries apart, providing valuable insight on both the process itself and how it varied [16]. First the content (calligraphy and any illuminations) are added to the pages, which are stacked and folded into gatherings of most commonly 4 pages. The gatherings are sewn together with silk thread on two stations (most commonly, four was also known in certain regions and later in period) independent of the covers, similar to early Coptic. Glue is applied to the spine and the textblock is placed in a press to squeeze out the excess and hold the book tight while it dries. This step, which adds rigidity, was perhaps added to address structural concerns. A spine lining of coarse cloth is glued on, similar to late Coptic. The primary endband is sewn around a leather core, and the secondary endband woven through these "warp" threads, mostly commonly in a chevron or striped pattern. This method of endband sewing is unique to Islamic bookbinding and very different from other endband styles used in the region. The cover boards are then glued on with the spine lining generally glued to the inside of the cover boards as in early Coptic bookbinding, and a leather cover glued on, the same as the late Coptic style. The pentagonal envelope flap would also be added at this point [17]. Tooled (and sometimes gilded) designs were applied using similar techniques to the later Coptic style, although with different design elements [18, 19]. The focus of scholars so far when comparing Islamic and Coptic bindings has focused on the decorative elements of the cover, perhaps because the binding structure was too degraded. The envelope flaps were commonly tooled in an extension of the same design used on the front and back covers. The designs common in Egypt tended to be relatively simple and required only a few tools, compared to the later Persian designs which tended to be very intricate and required specialized stamps [20]. Figure 16 shows the outside of the same book cover as above; the design depicted is more intricate than many of the other surviving Arabic bindings, yet still required only simple tools to make.

Figure 16 Islamic book cover, Egypt/Syria, 14th century, Met Museum

Despite the name of the style, it was not used only for religious purposes. Scientific and literary works were also very common, a fact that contributed to the Golden Age of Islam experienced during this time [21]. A survey of the extant material will skew more heavily towards Qu'rans than is estimated to have been the case in period, because Qu'rans tended to be more lavishly decorated and were preserved as art objects. Book arts are known to have flourished in Egypt (and the rest of the Islamic empire) during the 14th century. A primary patron of the book arts were the Mamluk rulers, who had many manuscripts of the Qu'ran made (and often lavishly decorated). In Cairo, the Azhar mosque was the center of intellectual life and also the book trade. In the fifteenth century, there was a stationer's market near the madrasa but a century later, that part of the market had been taken over by textile merchants, sadly indicating a decline of the paper industry (and presumably the book industry as well) in Egypt [8].

Conclusion

Provided in this paper is a thorough overview of bookbinding in Egypt pre-1600. From the development of scrolls during the Pharaonic Dynasties of Ancient Egypt, to the first use of the codex by the Coptic church and the evolution of the style over the centuries, and finally the Islamic style which has been the subject of much study by conservators and scholars. Where applicable, discussions of potential influences of one style to the next and of cultures outside of Egypt on the development of the book in Egypt have been included to fully encapsulate this fascinating evolution over the millennia. From papyrus to parchment to paper, the impact of the writing media on the form of the book was explored. Nowhere else in history is the evolution of writing material and book form so closely and clearly tied together as it was in Egypt.

References

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